society technology

 A society is a group of people that regularly contact with one another or a significant social group that inhabits the same physical or social territory and is typically under the control of the same political leadership and prevailing cultural expectations. A given society may be defined as the sum of all of these relationships among its constituent members. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between people who share a particular culture and institutions. In the social sciences, subgroup domination or stratification patterns frequently appear in bigger societies

By designating particular behaviors or ideas as acceptable or unacceptable, societies create patterns of behavior. The term "societal norms" refers to certain behavioral patterns within a particular community. Societies and their standards are constantly and gradually changing.⁹

Individual and communal (shared) benefits can thus be distinguished or, in many circumstances, found to overlap to the extent that it is

 collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be challenging on an individual basis. A society can also be made up of people who share the same beliefs and standards who live within a more established, broader society. The word "subculture," which is frequently used in criminology and used to describe separate segments of a wider community, is occasionally used to describe this.

A society can be defined more broadly, and particularly within structuralist theory, as an economic, social, industrial, or cultural infrastructure that is composed of, but separate from, a diverse group of people. In this sense, the term "society" can refer to individuals's objective interactions with both the physical world and one another, as opposed to "other people" who exist outside of the individual and their immediate social circle.

Conceptions

In the spectrum of animal ethology, humans are situated between the presocial and the eusocial. The great apes have always been gregarious animals, sometimes more so (Bonobo, Homo, Pan) or less so (Gorilla, Pongo). According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one important novelty in society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives (chimpanzees and bonobos), is the parental role assumed by the males. This role is allegedly absent in our closest relatives because paternity is typically difficult to determine.

According to the sociologist Gerhard Lenski, there are five types of societies: hunters and gatherers, simple agricultural, advanced agricultural, industrial, and special (e.g. fishing societies or maritime societies). [7] This is akin to the older system created by conflict theorist Morton H. Fried and integration theorist Elman Service, who created a classification scheme for civilizations in all human cultures based on the development of social disparity and the function of the state. The four categories in this classification scheme are as follows:

Some societies have evolved over time toward increasingly intricate systems of control and structure. 

The patterns of community are significantly impacted by this cultural evolution. 

Tribes of hunters and gatherers created agrarian villages by congregating around seasonal food sources. 

Cities and towns developed from villages. 

Cities evolved into nation- and city-states. 

[8]

Etymology and usage

The word "society" is derived from the 12th-century French word société, which means "company." [1] This came from the Latin term societas, which came from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"; adjectival form socialis), which was used to denote a bond or interaction between persons that was amicable, or at least civil. Without an article, the phrase can refer to all people (also: "society in general," "society at large," etc.), yet those who are hostile or unkind to the rest of society may be regarded as "antisocial" in this meaning. It was said to be "people united by neighborhood and intercourse conscious of living together in an orderly society" in the 1630s. [2] However, Scottish economist Adam Smith, who lived in the 18th 

Types

Societies are social groups that vary in their means of subsisting, or how they employ technology to meet their own requirements. Despite the fact that humans have historically created a wide variety of civilizations, anthropologists typically categorize them according to the extent to which different groups within a society have unequal access to benefits like resources, status, or power. Social stratification, or the dividing of members of a community into levels with unequal wealth, status, or power, has led to some degree of inequality among its citizens in almost all cultures. Pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial societies are categorized by sociologists into these three major groups.

Pre-industrial

The primary economic activity of a pre-industrial culture is the production of food, which is accomplished with the aid of both human and animal labor. These societies can be classified into groups based on how they produce food and how advanced their technology is. These divisions include pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and hunting and gathering.

The daily gathering of natural flora and the hunting of wild animals serve as the primary methods of producing sustenance in such communities. In search of food, hunter-gatherers are continuously on the go. [10] As a result, they typically only form tiny groupingslike bands and tribes and do not establish permanent villages or produce a large range of items. However, some hunting and gathering cultures developed elaborate hierarchical social systems like chiefdoms in regions with an abundance of resources (such as the Tlingit in North America). The size of these communities is likewise constrained by the requirement for mobility. [11] Bands are made up of 15 to 50 kin-related individuals. [12] Statuses are generally equal within the tribe, and decisions are made by consensus.

Decisions are made by general consensus, and statuses within the tribe are largely equal. Compared to the bands, the links that bind the tribe are more intricate. Only in tribal societies is leadership personal, charismatic, and employed for particular objectives. Political positions devoid of real power do not exist, and a chief is only a figure of influence. The primary social structure is the family, whose members are typically related through marriage or birth. [14] Due to their extensive leisure time, the anthropologist Marshall Sahlins referred to hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society":[15] Adults in horticultural and foraging societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours per day, whereas those in agricultural and industrial societies work, on average, 8.8 hours per day . 

Pastoral

A little more effective method of livelihood is pastoralism. Members of a pastoral civilization depend on domesticated herd animals to supply them with food rather than going hunting every day. Pastoralists move their herds from one pasture to another, leading a nomadic lifestyle. [17] Pastoral communities have much more consistent food supplies, allowing them to maintain greater populations. Fewer people are required to produce foodsince there are food surpluses. The division of labor (individuals' or organizations' specialization in carrying out particular economic activity) thus gets increasingly intricate. [9] For instance, some people choose to work as craftspeople, creating valuable objects like tools, swords, and jewelry. The making of things promotes trade. This trade contributes to inequality because some

Horticultural

The primary food supply in a horticultural culture is produce cultivated in garden plots that have been carved out of the jungle or forest. These communities are complex and have a similar level of technology to pastoral societies. The term "Agricultural Revolution" is used by historians to describe the technological advancements that took place as long as 10,000 years ago and led to the cultivation of crops and the keeping of farm animals. [18] Some horticultural groupscultivate crops using the slash-and-burn technique. [19] The untamed plants are chopped down and burned, and the ashes are then used as fertilizer. [20] Horticulturists develop the land for one or more seasons using human effort and basic tools. Horticulturists clean a new plot when the terrain becomes arid and let the old plot to revert to

A more intricate division of work results from an abundance of food, just like in pastoral societies. In horticultural communities, specialized occupations include those of crafters, shamans (religious authorities), and traders. [21] People with this role specialty can produce a wide range of artifacts. Due to the stable nature of horticulture life, political institutions in horticultural communities might experience inequality in wealth and power, much like in pastoral civilizations.

Agrarian

Agriculture technology advancements are used in agrarian societies to cultivate crops across a broad region. The usage of the plow, in Lenski's opinion, distinguishes agrarian society from horticultural societies. [22] Thanks to advances in technology, there are now more people than there were in earlier settlements. As a result of the increased excess, communities that developed into hubs of trade were able to support a variety of kings, teachers, crafters, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about finding food.

In agrarian communities, social stratification was more pronounced. For instance, because they shared labor more equitably with males in the past, women enjoyed higher social prestige. Women really gathered more food than males in hunting and gathering tribes. Men, however, grew more powerful in society as grocery shops got better and women took on various responsibilities for feeding the household. Conflicts with other communities became unavoidable as villages and towns grew into surrounding areas. Farmers fed warriors in exchange for their defense against enemy invasion. Also emerging was a system of powerful rulers. To keep the community safe from invasion, this nobility gathered warriors. The nobility was able to obtain commodities from the "lesser" classes of society in this fashion.

Industrial

The 15th and 16th centuries saw the emergence of a new economic structure. Open competition in a free market where the means of production are privately held characterize capitalism. One force behind the rise of capitalism was Europe's exploration of the Americas. Foreign metals, silks, and spices were introduced into European society, which greatly increased commercial activity.

Fuel-powered machines are a major part of industrial civilizations' production processes.

[23] This led to further, extremely significant efficiency gains. The industrial revolution's improved production efficiency led to an even bigger excess than previously. Now, there was a surplus of manufactured items in addition to agricultural ones. All of the domestication revolution's previously described modifications became much more pronounced as a result of this greater surplus.

Post-industrial

In post-industrial societies, the manufacturing of things is subordinated to the creation of information, services, and advanced technologies. [26] The emphasis is gradually shifting away from industry and production toward growing service industries in advanced industrial countries. For the first time, the majority of the workforce in the United States works in services. Government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking are

Characteristics

Gender

In accordance with the cultural divide of male and female gender roles, there are differences in conventions, practices, dress, conduct, rights, duties, privileges, position, and power. Cultural disparities between men and women are frequently seen to have developed spontaneously as a result of a division of reproductive work; the biological fact that women give birth also contributed to their cultural obligation to nurture and care for children. [27] Historical gender roles have changed, and numerous societies have experienced repeated challenges to prevailing gender standards.

Kinship

Based on relationships between parents, children, and other descendants (consanguinity), as well as relationships through marriage, all human civilizations arrange, recognize, and categorize different forms of social relationships (affinity). A third type is also used for godparents or adopted kids (fictive). We call these culturally specific connections kinship. It is one of the most significant social structuring elements in many countries and contributes to the transmission of rank and inheritance. [30] Every society has incest taboo laws that forbid marriages between specific kin connections, and some also have laws that favor marriages with particular kin relations.

Ethnicity

Human ethnic groups are a social category that unites around shared characteristics that set them apart from other groups. These may include a shared set of customs, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or methods of social interaction in their local community. [32] [33] Despite the fact that both ethnicity and race are social constructs and based on physical features, they are distinct from one another. [34] Even within common ethnic designations, there can be a wide variety of subgroups, and the composition of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level. This makes assigning ethnicity to a particular population challenging. [35] Additionally, there is no accepted definition of what an ethnic group is. [36] ethnic groupings can have a significant impact on the

Government and politics

Early political power was distributed according to where there was access to fresh water, fertile soil, and a moderate environment. [40] Interactions between these various groups grew as farming populations congregated in larger and denser groupings. As a result, governance inside and among the communities developed. [41] Since enormous societies without a government have found it difficult to function, the demand for some sort of governance grew as groups grew. [42] Humans have developed the capacity to switch rather quickly between identification with different social groupings, including formerly staunch political allies, if doing so is perceived as offering personal benefits. [43] Individual humans can modify their political ideas thanks to this cognitive flexibility, and those with greater cognitive flexibility are less likely to favor authoritarian and nationalistic viewpoints. [44]

Governments

Trade and economics

Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is thought to set humans apart from other animals and has been credited with giving Homo sapiens a significant advantage over other hominid species. [48] While long-distance trading networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals, evidence suggests that early Homo sapiens used them to exchange products and ideas, sparking cultural explosions and offering extra food sources when hunting was scarce. [49] [50] Materials used to make tools like obsidian were probably traded in the early ages. [51] The spice trade during the Roman and Medieval eras formed the basis of the first genuinely global commercial routes. [52]

Gift-giving rather than a bartering system was more likely to constitute the foundation of early human economies.

[53] Early funds included

Conflict

 

Humans kill adult humans at a high rate, yet they inflict violence on other humans at a rate equivalent to other primates (with infanticide being more common among other animals). [57] According to predictions, 2% of early Homo sapiens would perish, rising to 12% throughout the Middle Ages, then falling to under 2% in modern times. [58] Human populations vary greatly in their levels of violence, with homicide rates in countries with strong legal systems and cultural attitudes against violence at roughly 0.01%. [59]

It has long been controversial whether or not humans are willing to kill other members of their species in large numbers during organized combat (i.e., war). According to one school of thinking, war developed as a way to eliminate rivals and has